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During the last years, several studies Chen et al. Despite this, there are still several questions regarding the timing, location, and the evolutionary domestication process Larson and Fuller, Figure 1. The timeline of animal domestication adapted from Zeder, Since the Neolithic period, humans struggled to domesticate wild animals and use them as food sources milk and meat , commodity manufacturers silk and wool , protection, and transportation.
There are three pathways described for domestication: commensal, prey, and direct pathways Zeder, ; Figure 2. In the commensal pathway, the wild animals were attracted to anthropogenic habitats, mainly for human food waste or small prey, establishing a commensal relationship with humans.
Dogs, cats, or chickens are some of the species that followed this pathway. In the prey pathway, humans start hunting some species like pigs and cattle for their meat in response to depletion of the local stock of these animals. Over time, these game management strategies developed into controlled breeding of these species. In the direct pathway, humans captured wild animals horses, donkeys, and camelids to obtain some resources by controlling their movements, their nutrition, and reproduction, which lead to a dramatic bottleneck Zeder, Figure 2.
Different pathways from wild to domestic animals adapted from Larson and Burger, Dogs were the first animal to be domesticated by humans more than 15, years ago. Their wild ancestor is the extinct gray wolf, and despite being intensively studied, there are still questions regarding their geographical and temporal origins and events of domestication.
In the literature, there are several places of origin of dogs, including Europe Thalmann et al. More recently, a study using mtDNA states that dogs may have been domesticated independently in Eastern and Western Eurasia from different wolf populations. Later the eastern dogs accompanied humans through their dispersion to Western Europe, where they replaced the Western Eurasian and European Paleolithic dogs Frantz et al.
The same event occurred for American Leathlobhair et al. These expansions through the world, and the evolutionary dog history, involve bottlenecks and gene flow.
Since ancient times, wild cattle and humans are interconnected, and during the last 10, years, the number of domesticated bovine species is approximately five Helmer et al. Current knowledge of cattle domestication is predominantly based on mitochondrial DNA analysis Groeneveld et al.
Taurine cattle domestication reported back to the wild and now extinct in the near east, about years ago, after sheep and goat domestication Helmer et al. Cattle with Longhorn phenotype were the first one to be domesticated; still, this phenotype is common in the number of British, French, Mediterranean, and African breeds to date Schafberg and Swalve, First cattle with short horns reported back to years BC; the phenotype was fit to these habitats and switched by next wave of migrants Bradley and Magee, Britain took the most long-horn forms from Asia and neighboring continents about — years BC Epstein, In Europe, the most common type of cattle was short-horn until around BC Lenstra et al.
Several ecosystems in the various regions of the world are attributed to the domestication and distribution of cattle to and their adaptation to local environments Lenstra et al. Systematics has accelerated the cattle diversity in the last years and stretched the castles to the main breeds, like with dairy production Barker et al.
The process of the domestication resulted in a continuous decrease of size until the Middle Ages, but it was less pronounced in long-horned Italian forms and draught cattle Lenstra et al.
Primarily sheep were raised for meat around — years ago but later specified for other foodstuffs. Developments in animal husbandry and application of direct mating systems have evolved a variety of current sheep breeds, not only the most adaptable to the range of climates but also specific to the production of milk, meat, and wool Chessa et al. Mongolian sheep origin is the wild Argali sheep from highland areas of Central Asia. More than 2, years ago, many populations had moved to the south of the Great wall for several reasons; hence the most present Chinese breeds are linked to Mongolian sheep Huang et al.
However, with exposure to a changing environment, and feeding situations to various eco-regions across the country than normal habitat, Mongolian Sheep faced extensive artificial selection in diverse orders Liu et al. The subspecies of Mongolian sheep display substantial changes in several traits, particularly associated with reproduction, but how species diverge natively relative to these characters is not well interpreted Huang et al.
These studies identified the genes of significant importance for domestication process Petersen et al. Tibet wild pig Li et al. Several studies have explored the genome-wide difference among various indigenous breeds to fix the molecular basis of various physical traits of vital importance in the livestock, such as chicken Fan W.
However, the studies for Chinese short fat tail sheep are limited. The domestication of goats has a significant role in human society by providing valued products such as milk, meat, furs, and fiber, predominantly in China and other developing countries Joshi et al.
During the epoch, these domestic breeds rich in genetic assets incited us to pay more consideration; consequently, keeping the domestic animal variety is imperative to accomplish the forthcoming necessities. Concerning precise economic and environmental features, China has started focusing on conservation strategies for these native breeds, including specified conservation zone, conservation farms, and the gene bank of the genetic reserve for distinctive breeds Wei et al.
These highlands had allocated West China into Southwest and Northwest China, and consequence to the diverse climatic regions and ecological structure. China is an extensive subcontinent of merged topographical locations, so Chinese goat breeds exhibit a great range of variation in productivity, milk production, meat, and fiber; draught ability; heat tolerance; and disease resistance. Besides, several preceding studies on Chinese goats were conducted in the restricted number of trials within fewer breeds and counties Di et al.
Evaluation of the DNA of cats bridging the last 9, years — counting the remains, mummies, and specimens of cats from ancient Roman, Egypt, and modern African wildcat — suggested the current domestic feline have a great contribution of two major cat lines Ottoni et al. Thus early B. Farming communities settled the cats to control the rodent patrol. Mice and rats were drawn to the crops, and the rodent populations were possibly pursued by cats Montague et al.
In turn, both often came close to the human settlement. Hence, the domestication changed the wild cats to a domesticated human companion without changing much, says Eva-Maria Geigl, the evolutionary geneticist and article co-author Ottoni et al. The date of horse domestication is conceived from the definition of domestications Cieslak et al. Two theories of domestication are as follows: first, the human control over breeding depicted by changes in the size and variability of ancient skeletal samples from ancient horse populations, and second includes broader evidence of skeletal and dental activity weapons, arts, and spiritual artifacts; and patterns of human lifestyles Ross-Ibarra, Evidence claim horses were kept as meat animals before trained as working animals Hausberger et al.
The concept of isolated genotypes between domesticated and wild populations leads to exploring the domestication attempts using genetics or physical traits examination Rollin, Furthermore, being descendent of captive-fledged ancestors, all the domesticated horses, and feral horses are capable of retaining either characteristic Dobbie and Braysher, The domestication process led to the adaptation of various bovine species to an agricultural environment, and the most important species are indicated and taurine cattle followed by swamp and riverine and buffalo Barker, The genus Bubalus distribution was initially started in the Pleistocene, Europe, and South Asia, but was later constrained to southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent Flamand et al.
It is presently listed as an endangered species, with a world population lesser than 4,, possibly fewer than 1. Domestic water buffalo B. Some have referred to these as distinct subspecies, naming swamp buffalo B. However, because they resulted from different domestications, here they are designated distinctly. The same applies to the swamp and river types of water buffalo, the cross-fertile subspecies of the wild Bubalus arnee Groeneveld et al.
The history of domestic chicken species can be discussed in three different periods of time. The longest period is the evolutionary history, shared with other species before speciation, and along with various courses after speciation. The currently shared ancestor of birds and mammals existed my ago Tixier-Boichard et al. The most common ancestor between chicken and quail lived 40 my ago Mwacharo et al. The second period of species domestication starts several thousand years ago and led to domestic species diversification.
The recent period of rigorous production trait selection applied to a subset of these breeds is shorter, with just a few decades Kanginakudru et al. Therefore, on an evolutionary scale, domestication and, more significantly, a good selection for higher levels of production are very important MacDonald, The cumulative effect of human-made domestication and subsequent selection has given rise to a remarkable phenotypic diversification of the chicken, both at the molecular level MacDonald, Domestication has been a core question of interdisciplinary scientific research, and those traits that enhance the survival or the reproductive competence of the organisms are subject to selection and transferred to the next generation to increase the population prevalence Vitti et al.
Since , the study the domestication through complete genome sequence has become possible, and it has been associated with the detection of selection in a large number of genomic loci that have likely evolved by selective pressures Carneiro et al. Carneiro et al. Later in , Messer et al. Strong animal husbandry practices and controlled breeding have shaped the behavior, the morphological features, and the genetic diversity of domestic animals when compared to their wild ancestors Wang et al.
These characteristics make domesticated animals valued models for different areas with highlights in genetics and biomedical research Andersson, ; Wolf et al. All these differences are associated with genetic events as inbreeding, gene flow, and selection pressures.
Inbreeding leads to a decrease in genetic diversity and is associated with the isolation of small populations at the beginning of the domestication process Cieslak et al. There is evidence of long-term gene flow between wild and domestic animals such as donkeys, horses, camelids, pigs, wolves, cats, and the reindeer Marshall et al. Once domestication became established, a relaxation in the natural selective pressures both environmental and induced by humans enabled the increase of new mutations mostly non-synonymous mutations , leading to even more differentiated species Petersen et al.
Despite this, and due to the multitude of selective pressures involved, it is difficult to isolate any causal factors that result in specific genetic differences Zeder, Over the past 40 years, several species mostly livestock have been intensively selected, and notable phenotypic variations have been observed.
Since many of these genetic mutations lead to phenotypic alterations, identification of the signatures of positive selection is considered a valuable tool to recognize genes that might underlie important traits allowing to link genetic variants to a particular phenotype Consortium, As some authors suggest, domestication started unconsciously Tchernov and Horwitz, , and later a conscious selection of human-defined traits led to a high level of diversity Trut et al.
Indeed, during the initial period of their domestication, horses were mainly used for meat and milk Outram et al. Another example is the dog domestication process that focused not only on preferred physical characteristics, such as body thickness and body length, texture, skull shape, tail size and shape Wayne, , but also on improved behavioral patterns, with advanced features of guarding, herding, speed, agility, and companionship Ostrander et al. Indeed, all over the domestication process, studies suggest that humans did not maintain constant selective pressures.
Most likely, they selected different traits in different places at different times. Thus, extra care must be taken since the discovery of certain traits in current breeds does not necessarily mean that the trait was a target during the early domestication MacHugh et al.
Domestication has fascinated scientists from different fields through its importance as a model of evolutionary and demographic change Zeder et al. For example, dogs were domesticated before the start of agriculture from gray wolves Larson and Fuller, However, gray wolves were disseminated across the Northern hemisphere, hampering the findings on how, why, when, and where dogs were domesticated and if this process occurred just once or independently at different times Larson, Over the years, different genetic methodologies have been used to explore these questions Larson, In the first studies, DNAs were extracted from samples of a given species different locations, breeds, and populations and used to amplify and sequence control-regions of the mitochondrial genome.
Additionally, phylogenetic trees and haplotypes networks were generated Larson, Mitochondrial DNA mtDNA is considered an ideal marker, being extremely mutable within species and has been used to study demographic expansion, genetic diversity, and phylogenetic structure Bruford et al.
However, these sequences are derived from the maternally inherited genome and have a limited power to identify and quantify hybridization between different populations Larson, This approach was intensively used for several species as dogs Verginelli et al.
Some authors suggest that recent selective breeding may contribute to undermining the signatures of mtDNA between domesticates and their ancestors Librado et al. Additionally, quantitative trait loci QTL mapping has been used to identify candidate genes associated with domestication traits.
With these analyses, there have been some improvements in the domestication process, namely for fox Kukekova et al. In domestic animals, the genome-wide association studies GWAS has become an important method to study the genomic regions involved in traits of concern with the sequencing of the pig, cow, and dog genomes Lindblad-Toh et al. This method investigates the likelihood of the association of the genetic markers with a specific trait in domestic animals Cadieu et al.
The variation in these traits is due to intensive selective pressure elucidated by a small number of loci in these species Boyko et al. Consequently, in several domesticated species, GWAS have effectively recognized contributing genes both for complex traits and Mendelian traits controlled by loci with big influence size Hekman et al. The use of genome-wide methods initiated the microarray gene expression studies in the search for a group of genes or gene linkages involved in composite phenotypes in domesticated animals Everts et al.
However, the use of microarray techniques is narrow due to their dependencies on the use of identified probes, needing species-specific markers for the most precise results Hekman et al. The introduction of next-generation sequencing NGS technologies has revolutionized the gene expression research by removing the need for prior probes for transcripts.
RNA-seq or RNA sequencing requires the high-throughput reads generated by NGS to characterize the whole transcriptome: in other words, all transcripts generated in a tissue sample plus novel isoforms and formerly uncharacterized recorded sequences Allen et al. RNA-seq is generally used for a range of applications, such as to compare the group of differentially expressed genes in tissue samples or samples from different experimental groups or populations Bottomly et al.
Based on NGS or RNA-seq data, the individuals can be grouped into healthy or diseased by identifying the gene linkages associated with hereditary diseases or other genetic traits or by mapping various genetic loci Gautier et al.
Furthermore, mtDNA technology was used to recognize the genomic regions associated with important phenotypic traits as well as to identify the evolutionary history and the origin of domestication in animal species as compared with nuclear markers MacHugh and Bradley, ; Akey et al. Since , sequences of mtDNA fragments such as D-loop and cytochrome b regions have been used to study distribution of different domesticated animals, including dogs Savolainen et al. Understanding the genetic basis of phenotypic variations is the major aim of genetics.
Domestic animals offer a subjective opening for making significant improvement toward the goal of minimizing the gap between human biology and traditional model species Qanbari and Simianer, The continuous progress of high throughput sequencing technologies and modern bioinformatics approaches provide the complete genetic variation map of an individual, and it is now likely to test for phenotypic variation caused by single nucleotide polymorphisms SNPs.
The genome-wide association studies GWAS and candidate gene approach are two primary methods that are currently followed to recognize genomic regions or genes affecting the particular trait. Population genomics has presented a new model for linking DNA with a phenotype that has been revealed as a selection signature analysis. This is a genome to phenotype method that includes the statistical assessment of population genomic data irrespective of phenotype to find out targets of the previous selection.
Selection analysis can be employed in the natural population so numerous species Akey et al. An additional benefit is that it can detect selection if the preferred allele is previously fixed, while GWAS fails in such a condition Qanbari and Simianer, In modern researches, through using recent genomics technologies, it has become likely to explore the micro-evolutionary developments underlying animal domestication at the molecular level.
In this regard, various studies that have been done to produce domestic red fox, silver foxes Vulpes vulpes , and rats Rattus norvegicus have provided valuable understandings that were introduced during the middle of the twentieth century Albert et al. Furthermore, functional genomics, quantitative real-time PCR, microarray and reverse transcription studies of brain tissues from domestic dogs and wolves, transcriptional profiling through RNA-sequencing of rat brains combining genome mapping studies have identified numerous candidate genes and putative regulatory regions that have influenced docility and viciousness in animals Heyne et al.
It is necessary to annotate that the acute changes in gene expression linked to domestication possibly affect the growing stages in a specific tissue and will require extensive work to be conclusive Carneiro et al.
Gene enrichment analysis recognized that neurobiology is affected by the loci of those genes that were over-represented and targeted by directional selection, and principle functional analyses exposed that derived single nucleotide polymorphisms in developmental genes PAX2 and SOX2 were possible to be fixed within, or close to, regulatory sequences. Most remarkably, it was concluded that domestication was predominantly associated with selective sweeps causing genetic variations on regulatory regions throughout the animal genome, therefore indicating micro-evolutionary developments during the initial periods of domestication of vertebrate species Carneiro et al.
Understanding the significance of single disease-associated SNP alleles itself is neither necessary nor enough in causal of a disease. Rather, it is possibly the collective consequence of a set of SNP alleles enclosed by key genes, plus environmental factors that jointly conclude whether an individual experiences a certain disease.
The association study process includes the frequency determination of test factor e. The determination of the validity of this test crucially depends on appropriate patient-to-control matching population stratification. Another way of performing association studies more efficiently is by limiting the SNPs through pre-selection by testing the pathogenic effects of SNPs.
When there is strong linkage disequilibrium among the SNP marker and an unknown pathogenic allele, both can show a parallel association with the disease Pruvost et al. These approaches expanded the scope of comparative genomics from single genes to gene families and entire genomes. Mutations in DNA can vary from a single polymorphism to gene duplication or even complete genome duplication leading to many consequences, including phenotypic alterations. Additionally, a single gene can be involved in multiple, unrelated phenotypes Hodgkin, ; Hartl, , and genes of polygenic traits can act in combination to produce a single phenotype.
The variations within the gene could be triggered by nucleotide exchange non-synonymous or synonymous or indels, which can generate adaptive, negative, or neutral alterations in the gene. More recently, these approaches allowed the availability of genomes for several species and permitted the association of genes to specific traits of domestication in cattle Yurchenko et al.
Several other studies focus on the search for signatures of selection in those genes already described as important for the domestication process Neves et al. Paleogenomics, also known as genome-wide ancient DNA aDNA analysis, gives valuable information and has been crucial to investigate when, where, and how rapidly adaptive alleles spread in the populations Irving-Pease et al.
Indeed, recent studies using this approach provide new insights into the evolution and history of the cave bear Barlow et al. In livestock, biotechnology and conservative tools have contributed considerably to improve productivity, preserve genetic diversity, and enhance the adaptation to the environment Ko and Takahashi, Furthermore, functional genomics, quantitative real-time PCR, microarray, and reverse transcription studies identified many candidate genes and putative regulatory regions that have influenced docility and viciousness in animals Heyne et al.
With these advances in technology, the genetic architecture of domestication and the domestication process in some species became clearer Caliebe et al.
For example, it was possible to discover that pig populations were domesticated in one place and then moved to new areas successively gained the mitochondrial signature of native wild populations Ottoni et al.
The same applies to other taxa. The development of genome technologies such as genome assembly by sequencing, whole-genome shotgun WGS method Lindblad-Toh et al. Genome sequencing of domesticated species not only provides important resources to answer the queries raised by Darwin but also provides prospects to discover the genetic origin of profitable traits in domesticated species Hillier et al. The current information on genome projects highlights the demographic history, origins, and the artificial selection of domesticated animal species Anthony et al.
Additionally, it was determined with a preview of future guidelines for animal domestication. Various techniques were established to allow the de novo assembly of genomes during the human genome project Venter et al. The most effective technique was WGS sequencing, along with the building of physical maps. By , four domesticated animals horse, cat, dog, and taurine cattle genomes and one wild species genome the red jungle fowl were sequenced and assembled based on this method Wallis et al.
The domestication process is demonstrated through the detection of selection at a very large number of genomic loci that have likely evolved by natural and artificial selection Carneiro et al. Recently, it has become possible to explore the domestication process by complete genome sequences analyses at high resolution to define how it has formed modern domestic animal.
Several genomic loci such as the DGAT1 gene that is associated with lactation traits comprise a major quantitative trait nucleotide has been identified putatively under the selection through genome-wide comparisons of data from modern taurine and indicine cattle Park et al.
Furthermore, candidate genes were found under selection using population genomics approaches that were particularly involved in muscle development, growth, function, and immunity. This first genome-wide selection analyses detected genes that are considered as important candidates of domestication Ludwig et al.
However, many methods are available to retrieve and sequence genomes routinely and recognize hundreds of genomic loci under selection through genotyping. It is revealed that paleogenomics techniques will be used to investigate when, where, and how rapidly adaptive alleles spread at the population in domestic animals MacHugh et al.
Several arithmetical methods have been established by scientists to reveal diverse features of how to accomplish variations from and what is anticipated with respect to genetic differences in the neutral model Voight et al.
While all statistical methods are based on neutral genomic differences, not all of them are based on similar information. Most of the methods were established for complete sequence data and not for genome-wide pools of predetermined SNPs, which are presently accessible in few livestock species Corbett-Detig et al.
For example, the difference in the behavior of the great tit is statistically linked to the DNA methylation at dopamine receptor genes Verhulst et al. Similarly, maternal behavior affects the DNA methylation of the hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor gene in rats Weaver et al.
In domestic chickens, variances in DNA methylation are linked to disease exposure Tian et al. Although cell division maintains the DNA methylation patterns, sometimes these could be regulated by external stimuli Raynal et al. The DNA methylation changes that are controlled by the environment can be transferred through the germline Guerrero-Bosagna et al.
Somatic epigenetic changes can affect phenotypic traits, whether selected deliberately or involuntarily or formed by the environment. Therefore, mechanisms of epigenetic changes could be an essential factor in the development of prompt phenotypic variations that arise during domestication. As described above, selection played a crucial role during domestication accelerating phenotypic variations.
Skin and coat color are considered the only domestic traits subject to early selection by humans, thus becoming an essential genetic marker. A variety of mutations, including single nucleotide polymorphisms SNPs , insertions, deletions, and duplications are responsible for coat color discrepancies in both domestic and wild populations Cui et al. With the advances in technology and the knowledge on domestication, recent studies were able to associate Tph1 and Gabra5 genes to tameness and to produce tamed animals, namely foxes Vulpes vulpes and rats Rattus norvegicus Albert et al.
Besides, several other genes have been associated with different phenotypes in different animals. In cattle Grobet et al. In the early s, the DNA cloning was made possible through a cumbersome molecular cloning approach Higuchi et al. However, it was a big challenge that got attention in scientific community to recover reliable and reproducible DNA Thomas et al.
Therefore, the DNA field has been affected with major technical hurdles such as the presence of inhibitors of enzymatic reactions, post-mortem loss, contamination of preserved samples, and all the influences that can irreversibly contain the validity and reproducibility of a DNA amplified from archeological specimens Lindahl, ; Cooper and Poinar, However, the field of archaeo-genetics has been developed over the last four decades, scientists have scientifically tackled the methodological challenges related to DNA recovery from long-dead materials, and it is now well-known that an authentic and reproducible genetics information can be produced from the fossils of vertebrates.
Thus a DNA research has had an ancient concern in understanding the biology and evolution of domestic animals and their wild ancestors Troy et al. Domestication research has challenged scientists since Darwin, and despite the amount of new literature published every year, there are still many questions regarding this thematic.
This endless process began several million years ago and included diverse pressures that shaped animals in different ways and differentiate them from their ancestors. Genes linked with coat color were the ones associated with early domestication, being widely studied.
With this exception, no other genes were associated with the early stages of animal domestication. Recent studies described that animals were firstly selected based on behavioral characteristics, making hard the research when compared to morphological traits. Indeed, if we look at the crop and plant domestication where the insights obtained in the past years, with the same approaches, are significant when comparing to animals.
With the advances in sequencing and assembly technologies, genomes from different domestic and wild animals are becoming accessible. In addition to these, genomes from ancient populations are becoming available. Genetic research has a wide range of toolkits to explain not only the relationships between the domesticated animals and their wild ancestors but also the domestication traits and their genetic architecture.
These results are essential to compare the patterns in the modern populations with those of the previous generations and data from phylogeography and also to identify new genes and associate them with specific traits. Methylomics and transcriptomic analyses are essential to study the epigenetic factors and expression present in wild and domesticated animals to support the variations linked to domestication.
A conceptual perspective connecting all of these environmental, genetic, and developmental manipulations is expected to lead to better application and cross-disciplinary incorporation of functional evolutionary approaches to study domestication of animals and their relationship to wild ancestors. Therefore, the facts of building a more integrated field of evolutionary biology must be underscored to address global challenges of domestication. Human impact on the biosphere has deep consequences for both direction and the rate of evolution during evolution.
At the same time, animals and other organisms that are worthy for ecological, aesthetic or economic reasons are often not able to adapt rapidly enough to keep pace with changes of the environment impacted by human activities.
These modern dilemmas progressively threaten animal health, biological diversity, and domestication history. A developing interest of evolutionary biology may help us to improve our skills to cope with challenges to solve most of pressing problems of domestication of animal species during the twenty-firstcentury. Future works should apply these technologies and obtain genomes of a large number of individuals inside different species worldwide in order to better comprehend the genetic, morphological, and behavioral characteristics of different species.
With these achievements, we hope to fully understand when, where, and how animals where domesticated and consequently understand the human civilizations. Although the genetic and geographic pattern of early animal domestication is poorly understood, a clear background for understanding the evolutionary routes of domesticated animals is progressing.
The early stages of animal domestication show an extended coevolutionary progression with various phases along diverse trajectories that enhanced the reproduction and survival of domesticates. Natural selective pressures relaxed, and new mutations arose and allowed for unique traits. Our understanding of the genetic basis of animal domestication facilitates improvements through breeding using new techniques.
Defining important events of domestication delivers a unique aspect in studying the linkage between humans and the natural world and determines the events that drive human cultural evolution to interact with that leading biological evolution. HA: data acquisition. SA: writing of the manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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Beja-Pereira, A. Wild chickens only hatched a small number of eggs once a year, while domestic chickens commonly lay or more eggs each year. Effects on Humans Domesticating plants marked a major turning point for humans: the beginning of an agricultural way of life and more permanent civilizations.
Humans no longer had to wander to hunt animals and gather plants for their food supplies. Agriculture —the cultivating of domestic plants—allowed fewer people to provide more food. The stability that came with regular, predictable food production led to increased population density. The world's first villages and cities were built near fields of domesticated plants. Plant domestication also led to advances in tool production.
The earliest farming tools were hand tools made from stone. People later developed metal farming tools, and eventually used plows pulled by domesticated animals to work fields. Dogs and Wolves Though today's dogs were likely domesticated from gray wolves, they are now a distinct species. Dogs' scientific name is canis lupus familiaris , while the scientific name for gray wolves is canis lupus. Wild Horses The process of domestication continues. Cowboys and other horse experts train horses.
Sometimes, this is called "breaking" a horse. Training a horse to allow a saddle and rider requires an enormous amount of physical work, training, and patience. Horses that are born on ranches or in stables still need to be trained, although training a young horse is easier than domesticating a horse caught in the wild.
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You cannot download interactives. Agricultural communities developed approximately 10, years ago when humans began to domesticate plants and animals.
By establishing domesticity, families and larger groups were able to build communities and transition from a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle dependent on foraging and hunting for survival.
Select from these resources to teach your students about agricultural communities. Mesopotamia is thought to be one of the places where early civilization developed. It is a historic region of West Asia within the Tigris-Euphrates river system. In fact, the word Mesopotamia means "between rivers" in Greek. Home to the ancient civilizations of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia these peoples are credited with influencing mathematics and astronomy.
Use these classroom resources to help your students develop a better understanding of the cradle of civilization. Hunter-gatherer cultures forage or hunt food from their environment.
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